Yield and Chemical Characteristics of Salvia hispanica L. (Chia) Oil from Native Seeds from Four Provenances of Guatemala.

INTRODUCTION: Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) is a plant from the Lamiaceae family that has been used as ancestral food, medicine, and oil, with culinary, artistic, and religious purposes by most of the Mesoamerican civilizations. Native from Mesoamerica, introduced into South America, Australia, and Europe, it is presently consumed as a nutritional and functional food. OBJECTIVE: This research aims to characterize ancient native cultivars from four provenances in Guatemala to recommend their direct consumption by the population as well as to establish its trade. METHOD: Seed samples were collected in four places where they have been cultivated for several generations. The oil was obtained by expression and analyzed chemically by gas chromatography following standard qualitative and quantitative methods. RESULTS: Variations in oil yield and some of the characteristic parameters of the phytochemical analysis were obtained. In general, the profile was similar to most of the reported data in the literature, with the saturated fatty acids (8.54-9.25%) relatively lower than the references (7.95-11.45%) but a higher concentration of unsaturated fatty oils, particularly of omega-3 (64.68-68.62%). CONCLUSION: The oil from native cultivars contains high quantities of omega-3, which might help pregnant women during gestation and to control other conditions such as metabolic syndrome, particularly in low- and middle-income populations where these seeds are consumed regularly. The suggestion is made to encourage the cultivation and use of these ancestral seeds with the possibility of commercialization abroad with an appellation of origin label.

In silico molecular docking analysis of three molecules isolated from Litsea guatemalensis Mez on anti-inflammatory receptors.

BACKGROUND: The Litsea genus has four native species from Mesoamerica. Litsea guatemalensis Mez. is a native tree, traditionally used as a condiment and herbal medicine in the region. It has demonstrated antimicrobial, aromatic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity. Bioactive fractionation attributed the anti-inflammatory and anti-hyperalgesic activities to pinocembrin, scopoletin, and 5,7,3´4´-tetrahydroxy-isoflavone. In silico analysis, these molecules were analyzed on receptors involved in the anti-inflammatory process to determine which pathways they interact. OBJECTIVE: To analyze and evaluate 5,7,3',4'-tetrahydroxyisoflavone, pinocembrin, and scopoletin using the in silico analysis against selected receptors involved in the inflammatory pathway. METHOD: Known receptors involved in the anti-inflammatory process found as protein-ligand complex in the Protein Data Bank (PDB) were used as references for each receptor and compared with the molecules of interest. The GOLD-ChemScore function, provided by the software, was used to rank the complexes and visually inspect the overlap between the reference ligand and the poses of the studied metabolites. RESULTS: 53 proteins were evaluated, each one in five conformations minimized by molecular dynamics. The scores obtained for dihydroorotate dehydrogenase were greater than 80 for the three molecules of interest, scores for cyclooxygenase 1 and glucocorticoid receptor were greater than 50, and identified residues with interaction in binding sites overlap with the reference ligands in these receptors. CONCLUSION: The three molecules involved in the anti-inflammatory process of L. guatemalensis show in silico high affinity to the enzyme dihydroorotate dehydrogenase, glucocorticoid receptors and cyclooxygenase-1.

Neuropharmacological Effects in Animal Models and HPLC-Phytochemical Profiling of Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth Bark Extracts.

B. crassifolia is a species that grows in various areas of Latin America. It was known to be useful for the treatment of different human ailments. The present work evaluated the neuropharmacological and analgesic effects of hydroalcoholic and dichloromethane extracts of B. crassifolia. The effect on the central nervous system (CNS) of both extracts obtained from bark, administered by the intraperitoneal route in mice, was evaluated by different tests: spontaneous motor activity, hole-board, motor coordination, pentobarbital induced hypnosis, and rectal temperature. Analgesic activity was evaluated using a hot plate test. Phytochemical analysis was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) using reversed-phase and gradient of elution. The hydroalcoholic extract (dose 0.5 g dry plant/kg weigh) administration caused an important reduction of the head-dipping response in the hole board test. A decrease in spontaneous motor activity test and a disturbance of motor coordination in the rotarod test was observed. The hydroalcoholic extract produced a significant prolongation of pentobarbital induced sleeping time. This extract prevented hot plate test induced nociception. The phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of catechin, epicatechin, and procyanidin B12. Therefore, this study revealed that the hydroalcoholic extract of B. crassifolia possesses analgesic and sedative CNS activity.

Nephroprotective plant species used in traditional Mayan Medicine for renal-associated diseases.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The prevalence of kidney disease has increased rapidly in recent years and has emerged as one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Natural products have been suggested as valuable nephroprotective agents due to their multi-target and synergistic effects on modulating important proteins involved in kidney injury. There is a large number of plant species that have been used traditionally for kidney-related conditions in Mesoamerican medicine by different cultural groups that could provide a valuable source of nephroprotective therapeutic candidates and could lead to potential drug discovery. AIM OF REVIEW: This review aims to provide an overview of the currently known efficacy of plant species used traditionally in Mesoamerica by Mayan groups to treat kidney-related conditions and to analyze the phytochemical, pharmacological, molecular, toxicological, and clinical evidence to contribute to public health efforts and for directing future research. METHODS: Primary sources of plant use reports for traditional kidney-related disorders in Mesoamerica were searched systematically from library catalogs, theses, and scientific databases (PubMed, Google Scholar; and Science Direct), and were filtered according to usage frequency in Mayan groups and plant endemism. The database of traditional plants was further analyzed based on associations with published reports of the phytochemical, pharmacological, molecular, toxicological, and clinical evidence. RESULTS: The most reported kidney-related conditions used traditionally in Mayan medicine involve reducing renal damage (a cultural interpretation that considers an inflammatory or infectious condition), cleaning or purifying the blood and kidney, reducing kidney pain, and eliminating kidney stones. A total of 208 plants used for kidney-related problems by 10 Mayan groups were found, representing 143 native species, where only 42 have reported pharmacological activity against kidney damage, mainly approached by in vitro and in vivo models of chemical- or drug-induced nephrotoxicity, diabetes nephropathy, and renal injury produced by hypertension. Nephroprotective effects are mainly mediated by reducing oxidative stress, inflammatory response, fibrosis mechanisms, and apoptosis in the kidney. The most common nephroprotective compounds associated with traditional Mayan medicine were flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenolic acids. The most widely studied traditional plants in terms of pharmacological evidence, bioactive compounds, and mechanisms of action, are Annona muricata L., Carica papaya L., Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam., Lantana camara L., Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw., Tagetes erecta L., and Zea mays L. Most of the plant species with reported pharmacological activity against kidney damage were considered safe in toxicological studies. CONCLUSION: Available pharmacological reports suggest that several herbs used in traditional Mayan medicine for renal-associated diseases may have nephroprotective effects and consistent pharmacological evidence, nephroprotective compounds, and mechanisms of action in different models of kidney injury. However, more research is required to fully understand the potential of traditional Mayan medicine in drug discovery given the limited ethnobotanical studies and data available for most species with regards to identification on bioactive components, pharmacological mechanisms, and the scarce number of clinical studies.

Inhibition of enzymatic activities of Bothrops asper snake venom and docking analysis of compounds from plants used in Central America to treat snakebite envenoming.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Snakebite envenoming is a public health problem of high impact in Central America. Bothrops asper, known as barba amarilla, terciopelo, and equis, is the snake species responsible for most snakebites in Central America. In this region, there is a long-standing tradition on the use of plants in the management of snakebites, especially in indigenous communities. Ethnomedical use of Eryngium foetidum L., Neurolaena lobata (L.) Cass. and Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr. to treat snakebite envenoming has been reported in Belice, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Extracts of the leaves of these plants have shown anti-venom activities in in vitro assays in previous studies. AIM OF THE STUDY: To assess the ability of organic fractions from these three plants to inhibit enzymatic activities associated with toxicity of the venom of B. asper, and to study, by docking analysis, the interaction of metalloproteinase and phospholipases A2 (PLA2) from B. asper venom with secondary metabolites previously described in these plants. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Organic fractions were obtained from these three plant species and their ability to neutralize proteolytic, PLA2 and in vitro coagulant activities of B. asper venom was assessed. A phytochemical analysis was carried out in these fractions. The interaction of secondary metabolites previously described in these plants with three toxins from B. asper venom (a metalloproteinase, a PLA2 and a PLA2 homologue) was investigated by docking analysis. RESULTS: The inhibitory activity of plants was mainly concentrated in their polar fractions. Acetonic fraction from P. dioica was the most active against PLA2 activity, while the acetonic fraction of E. foetidum completely inhibited the proteolytic activity of the venom. Coagulant activity was partially inhibited only by the acetone and ethyl acetate fractions of P. dioica. Phytochemical analysis of the most bioactive fractions identified flavonoids, saponins, essential oils, coumarins, alkaloids, tannins and sesquiterpene lactones. Docking analysis revealed high affinity interactions of several secondary metabolites of these plants with residues in the vicinity of the catalytic site of these enzymes and, in the case of PLA2 homologue myotoxin II, in the hydrophobic channel. CONCLUSIONS: Various fractions from these plants have inhibitory activity against enzymatic actions of B. asper venom which are directly associated with toxicological effects. Docking analysis showed structural evidence of the interaction of secondary metabolites with three toxins. These observations provide support to the potential of these plants to inhibit relevant toxic components of this snake venom.

Medicinal plants used in traditional Mayan medicine for the treatment of central nervous system disorders: An overview.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: For thousands of years, different cultural groups have used and transformed natural resources for medicinal purposes focused on psychological or neurological conditions. Some of these are recognized as central nervous system (CNS) disorders and diseases, whereas other ethnopsychiatric interpretations are explained in culture-specific terms. In traditional Mayan medicine, several herbs have been part of treatments and rituals focused on cultural and ethnomedical concepts. AIM OF REVIEW: This study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the medicinal plants used in Mesoamerica by traditional healers and Mayan groups to CNS disorders and associate the traditional use with demonstrated pharmacological evidence to establish a solid foundation for directing future research. METHODS: A systematic search for primary sources of plant use reports for traditional CNS-related remedies of Mesoamerica were obtained from library catalogs, thesis and scientific databases (PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar; and Science Direct), and entered in a database with data analyzed in terms of the usage frequency, use by ethnic groups, plant endemism, and pharmacological investigation. RESULTS: A total of 155 plants used for ethnopsychiatric conditions in Mesoamerica by Mayan groups were found, encompassing 127 native species. Of these, only 49 native species have reported in vitro or in vivo pharmacological analyses. The most commonly reported ethnopsychiatric conditions are related to anxiety, depression, memory loss, epilepsy, and insomnia. The extent of the scientific evidence available to understand the pharmacological application for their use against CNS disorders varied between different plant species, with the most prominent evidence shown by Annona cherimola, Justicia pectoralis, J. spicigera, Mimosa pudica, Persea americana, Petiveria alliacea, Piper amalago, Psidium guajava, Tagetes erecta and T. lucida. CONCLUSION: Available pharmacological data suggest that different plant species used in traditional Mayan medicine may target the CNS, mainly related to GABA, serotonin, acetylcholine, or neuroprotective pathways. However, more research is required, given the limited data regarding mechanism of action at the preclinical in vivo level, identification of active compounds, scarce number of clinical studies, and the dearth of peer-reviewed studies.

Neutralization of toxic activities of Bothrops asper snake venom by ethnomedicinal plants used in Central America, with emphasis in Guatemala: a review / Neutralización de actividades tóxicas del veneno de la serpiente Bothrops asper por plantas etnomedicinales utilizadas en Centroamérica, con énfasis en Guatemala: Revisión

There are few scientific studies that explore the use of medicinal plants for snakebite envenoming in Central America, although plant-based therapies have been traditionally used in the region. This work reviews the studies conducted in Central America to assess the ability of extracts obtained from plants of local ethnomedical use to inhibit toxic activities of the venom of Bothrops asper, the snake responsible for approximately half of the snakebite envenomings in these countries. The search prioritized the description of the plants used in Guatemala, since most of the studies described in this work were conducted in that country, although references to other countries are included. Information concerning secondary metabolites and other pharmacological activities of these plant species, relevant to the treatment of snakebites, was also described. The literature search was conducted in the Google Scholar, PubMed and Scopus databases and completed with locally available literature. It was found that extracts of 12 plant species inhibited the hemorrhagic effect of the venom and three neutralized the edema-forming activity, while inhibition of proteolytic and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activities was achieved by three and one plant species, respectively. Only Brownea rosa-de-monte was able to effectively counteract the in vitro coagulant effect of the venom. Some plant extracts screened in Guatemala demonstrated procoagulant or anti-thrombin intrinsic effects that might aggravate the coagulopathy induced by the venom. These findings underscore the need of carrying out scientific studies aimed to validate the inhibitory potential of Central American plant extracts and their metabolites against B. asper venom.

Pocos estudios científicos han explorado el uso de plantas medicinales para el tratamiento del envenenamiento ofídico en Centroamérica, a pesar de que las terapias basadas en plantas son de uso tradicional en la región. Este trabajo recopiló información sobre los estudios realizados en Centroamérica para evaluar la capacidad de extractos de plantas de uso etno-médico para inhibir las actividades tóxicas del veneno de Bothrops asper, la serpiente responsable de aproximadamente la mitad de los envenenamientos ofídicos en Centroamérica. La búsqueda priorizó la descripción de plantas utilizadas en Gua-temala, ya que la mayoría de los estudios aquí descritos fueron realizados en ese país. También se incluyó la descripción de los metabolitos secundarios y otras actividades farmacológicas de las especies evaluadas, que podrían explicar su uso como antiofídicos. La búsqueda de literatura se realizó en las bases de datos de Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, y se completó con literatura disponible localmente. Se determinó que 12 extractos de plantas inhibieron el efecto hemorrágico del veneno y tres el efecto edematígeno; la actividad proteolítica fue inhibida por extractos de tres especies y la fosfolipasa A2 (PLA2) por una especie. Solamente Brownea rosa-de-monte demostró inhibir efectivamente el efecto coagulante del veneno in vitro. Algunos extractos de las plantas tamizadas en Guatemala demostraron efectos procoagulantes o anti-trombina intrínsecos, que podrían agravar las alteraciones inducidas por el veneno en la coagulación. Estos hallazgos enfatizan la necesidad de validar el potencial de extractos de plantas centroamericanas y sus metabolitos secundarios para neutralizar el veneno de B. asper.

Influencia del polimorfismo de CYP3A4 y CYP3A5 en la farmacocinética de tacrolimus en receptores de trasplante renal. Revisión narrativa / Influence of CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 polymorphism of the pharmacokinetics of tacrolimus in renal transplant recipients. Narrative review

El uso de inhibidores de calcineurina, en particular de tacrolimus como terapia inmunosupresora se ha generalizado a nivel mundial, permitiendo mejorar la tasa de sobrevida del injerto y la calidad de vida del paciente trasplantado. Con el acceso a los estudios de farmacogenética, los grupos de trasplante a nivel mundial se han visto motivados a realizar estudios genéticos que permitan interpretar la influencia de polimorfismos de genes como mTOR, PPP3CA, FK BP1A, FKBP2, y FOXP3, sin embargo, los más estudiados en la población trasplantada para optimizar la dosis de tacrolimus y ciclosporina son los polimorfismos del citocromo p450, CYP3A4 y CYP3A5.El objetivo de la presente revisión narrativa es examinar publicaciones recientes que estudien la relación entre el polimorfismo de CYP3A4/5 y el metabolismo de tacrolimus en pacientes trasplantados renales.Se revisó literatura reciente extraída de los sitios NCBI PubMed y PharmGKB.org en la que se hubiera investigado la influencia de los polimorfismos de CYP3A4/5 en el metabolismo de tacrolimus en trasplantados renales. Se identificó variaciones genéticas de CYP3A4/5 en pacientes trasplantados tratados con tacrolimus que permitirán a los médicos trasplantólogos dosificar de manera precisa el inmunosupresor. El uso de análisis farmacogenéticos permite determinar las variables genéticas del CYP3A4/5, y por lo tanto la toma de decisiones personalizadas en la dosis de inicio y de mantenimiento del inmunosupresor tacrolimus para alcanzar los niveles óptimos y con ello disminuir el riesgo de rechazo, de infecciones asociadas a inmunosupresión, y de toxicidad por el medicamento.

The use of the calcineurin inhibitor tacrolimus as immunosuppressive therapy, has become widespread world-wide, improving the graft's survival rate and the quality of life of the transplanted patient. With access to pharmacogenetic studies, transplant groups worldwide have been motivated to conduct genetic studies to inter-pret the influence of polymorphisms of genes such asmTOR, PPP3CA, FK BP1A, FKBP2, and FOXP3, however the most studied in the transplanted population to optimize the dose of tacrolimus and cyclosporine are those of cytochrome p450,CYP3A4 and CYP3A5. The objective of this narrative review is to examine recent publications studying the relationship betweenCYP3A4/5polymorphism, and tacrolimus metabolism in renal transplant patients. Literature extracted from the NCBI PubMed site and PharmGKB.org, from the past five years, which investigated the influence ofCYP3A4/5polymorphism on tacrolimus metabolism in renal transplants had been reviewed. Genetic variations ofCYP3A4/5 were identified in transplant patients treated with tacrolimus that will allow transplant physicians to dose the immunosuppressant accurately. The use of pharmacogenetic analyses makes it possible to determine the genetic polymorphisms ofCYP3A4/5, and therefore the decision-making cus-tomized at the starting and maintenance dose of the tacrolimus immunosuppressant to achieve optimal levels and thereby reduce the risk of rejection, immunosuppression-associated infections, and drug toxicity.

Vías moleculares patogénicas del linfoma T/NK extranodal de tipo nasal asociadas con virus de Epstein Barr: Revisión narrativa / Molecular pathways related to Epstein Barr virus in extranodal NK/T cell lymphoma, nasal type: Narrative review

El virus de Epstein Barr (VEB) se encuentra presente en el 100% de los casos de linfoma T/NK extranodal de tipo nasal (ENKTL) y juega un papel importante en la etiopatogenia de esta enfermedad. El objetivo de esta revisión es actualizar el conocimiento de las vías moleculares genéticas y epigenéticas utilizadas por el VEB en la oncogenesis del ENKTL. Para ello se realizó una revisión de la literatura, en las bases de datos de PubMed y Google Scholar, sobre los mecanismos que utilizan las proteínas virales como la proteína de membrana latente (LMP1) y el antígeno nuclear Epstein Barr 1 (EBNA1) para activar proteínas antiapoptóticas del huésped y pro-teínas relacionadas a proliferación celular, a través de las vías moleculares JAK/STAT (Janus quinasas/señales de transducción y activación de proteínas de transcripción), NF-κB (el factor nuclear potenciador de las cadenas ligeras kappa de las células B activadas) EZHZ2 (Enhancer of Zeste 2 Polycomb repressive Complex 2) y PI3K/Akt (Fosfoinositido 3 quinasa/proteína quinasa B); también se revisó el papel de las proteínas virales BNLF2a, BILF y BDLF3 en la evasión inmune del virus. También LMP1 aumenta la expresión de PDL-1 (ligando de la muerte celular programada), contribuyendo a la disminución de la respuesta inmunológica. A nivel epigenético se abordan los cambios del perfil de metilación en las áreas promotoras de genes supresores de tumor y se explica la función de los miARN de VEB que participan inhibiendo genes supresores de tumor o activando genes que aumentan la proliferación.

Epstein Barr virus (EBV) is present in 100% of cases of nasal-type extranodal NK/T cell lymphoma (ENKTL). It plays an important role in the etiopathogenesis of this disease. The objective of this review is to update the knowledge of the genetic and epigenetic molecular pathways used by EBV in the oncogenesis of ENKTL. To this end, a literature review was carried out in the PubMed and Google Scholar databases on the mechanisms used by viral proteins such as latent membrane protein (LMP1) and Epstein Barr 1 nuclear antigen (EBNA1) to activate host antiapoptotic proteins avoiding cell death and activating cell proliferation, through the molecular pathways JAK/STAT (Janus kinases/signal transduction and activation of transcription proteins), NF-κB (the nuclear factor enhancing the kappa light chains of activated B cells) EZHZ2 pathways (Enhancer of Zeste 2 Polycomb repressive Complex 2) and PI3K/Akt (Phosphoinositide 3 kinase protein kinase B). The role of the viral proteins: BNLF2a, BILF and BDLF3 in the virus immune evasion. It is currently recognized that LMP1 increases the expression of PDL-1 (programmed cell death ligand), contributing to the decrease in the immune response. Thus, the epigenetic changes in the methylation profile in the promoter areas of tumor suppressor genes, was also reviewed. Finally role of EBV miRNAs participate in inhibiting tumor suppressor genes or activating genes that increase proliferation.

Inhibición de las actividades proteolítica y fosfolipasa A2 del veneno de Bothrops asper por el extracto etanólico de Neurolaena lobata (L) Cass / Inhibition of proteolytic and phospholipase A2 activities of Bothrops asper venom by the ethanolic extract of Neurolaena lobata (L) Cass

Neurolaena lobata es utilizada tradicionalmente en Centroamérica para tratar la mordedura de serpiente, pero su efectividad para contrarrestar el envenenamiento producido por Bothrops asper ha sido poco estudiada. Se evaluó la capacidad del extracto etanólico de sus hojas para inhibir las actividades proteolítica, fosfolipasa A2 (PLA2; evaluada como hemólisis indirecta) y coagulante del veneno in vitro. El material vegetal fue colectado en Izabal, Guatemala, secado, se hicieron extracciones con etanol y se evaluó la presencia de actividades proteolítica, PLA2 y coagulante in-trínsecas en ensayos de concentración-actividad. Los efectos inhibitorios de la actividad proteolítica y PLA2 del veneno se evaluaron después de pre-incubar concentraciones variables del extracto con concentraciones fijas de veneno. La inhibición de la actividad coagulante del veneno no fue evaluada porque el extracto presentó actividad anticoagulante intrínseca dependiente de la concentración. El extracto inhibió completamente las actividades proteolítica (CE50 = 15.7 µg/µl) y PLA2 (CE50 = 32.5 µg/µl) del veneno. El análisis fitoquímico utilizando ensayos macro y semimicrométricos de cromatografía en capa fina, demostró la presencia de flavonoides, cumarinas, saponinas, taninos, sesquiterpenlactonas y aceites esenciales en el extracto. Su efecto sobre las proteínas del veneno se evaluó por electroforesis SDS-PAGE, mostrando cambios en el patrón electroforético atribuidos a la formación de complejos moleculares con los metabo-litos del extracto. Los resultados indican que el extracto podría inhibir los efectos tóxicos del veneno inducidos por las metaloproteinasas dependientes de zinc (SVMPs) y PLA2s, pero podría afectar las alteraciones en la coagulación, coadyuvando en la desfibrinogenación inducida por el veneno.

Neurolaena lobata has been used by traditional healers in Central America to treat snakebite, but its ability to neutralize Bothrops asper envenomations needs to be proved. This study evaluated the inhibitory potential of the ethanolic extract of the leaves of N. lobata against proteolytic, phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and coagulant activities of the venom in vitro. Leaves were collected in Izabal, Guatemala, dried, extracted with ethanol and concentration-response assays were conducted to detect intrinsic proteolytic, PLA2 (evaluated as indirect hemolysis) and coagulant activities. Assays for anti-proteolytic and anti-PLA2 activities were performed after pre-incubation of several amounts of extract with a fixed concentration of venom. Inhibition assay for the coagulant effect of the venom was not tested because pre-incubation of thrombin with the extract prolonged the clotting time of plasma in a concentration-dependent manner. Proteolytic (EC50 = 15.7 µg/µl) and PLA2 (EC50 = 32.5 µg/µl) activities of the venom resulted completely inhibited by the extract. Phytochemical profiles, determined by micrometric assays and semi microanalysis by thin layer chro-matography, showed the presence of flavonoids, coumarins, saponins, tannins, sesquiterpene lactones and essential oils in the extract. SDS-PAGE was used to assess the action of the extract on the venom proteins. Results showed changes in the electrophoretic profile, probably due to the formation of insoluble complexes with plant specialized metabolites. These findings demonstrated that the extract could be able to inhibit toxic effects triggered by zinc-dependent snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) y PLA2s but might aggravate the alterations induced by the venom in coagulation.

Principales plantas medicinales disponibles en Guatemala con actividad contra virus respiratorios que infectan al ser humano ­ Revisión narrativa / Main medicinal plants available in Guatemala with activity against respiratory virus that infects the human being ­ Narrative review

Las infecciones respiratorias constituyen una importante causa de morbilidad y mortalidad a nivel mundial, incrementándose su relevancia ante la reciente infección por SARS-CoV-2, causante de la pandemia de COVID-19. Las opciones terapéuticas para esta infección respiratoria son escasas y sin eficacia comprobada. El objetivo de esta revisión fue buscar la información sobre plantas con actividad antiviral o viricida publicada en los últimos 10 años, en las bases de datos de Google Scholar, Scopus y PubMed. La búsqueda priorizó aquellas especies disponibles en Guatemala, la cual se complementó con la búsqueda de moléculas con actividad antiviral para finalmente postular aquellas que puedan prevenir la infección o aminorar la patogénesis del SARS-CoV-2. Se detectaron más de 170 especies con actividad antiviral y se organizó la información por país o región y tipo de actividad antiviral contra virus específicos. De las especies de mayor disponibilidad en Guatemala se seleccionaron 20. La revisión culmina con 15 artículos que proponen plantas o moléculas con potencial actividad específica en el manejo de la pandemia por SARS-CoV-2. Se concluye que existen especies vegetales (Curcuma longa, Echinacea purpurea, Psidium guajava, Allium sativum, Salvia officinalis y Eucalyptus globulus) y fitocompuestos vegetales (hesperidina, rutina, diosmina, apiina, aloe-emodina, piperina, capsaicina, curcumina, oleuropeina, rhamnetina y gallato de epicatequina) que podrían contribuir al manejo de la enfermedad. Se insta a académicos y autoridades a poner más atención a estas opciones terapéuticas que nos ofrece la naturaleza y que podrían contribuir a aliviar el colapso de los sistemas de salud prevalentes.

Respiratory infections are an important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, increasing their relevance by the recent SARS-CoV-2 infection causing the COVID-19 pandemic. Therapeutic options for this respiratory infection are scarce and without proven effectiveness. The objective of this review was the search for information on plants with antiviral or viricidal activity published in the last 10 years in the Google Scholar, Scopus, and PubMed databases. The search prioritized those species available in Guatemala, was completed with the search of molecules with potential to prevent infection or reduce the activity of SARS-CoV-2 infection. More than 170 species with antiviral activity were detected and the information organized in surveys by country or region, activity against specific viruses and antiviral information on the 20 most commonly available species in the country. It is complemented with a summary of 15 articles that proposed plants or molecules with potential specific activity in the management of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. It is concluded there are plant species (Curcuma longa, Echinacea purpurea, Psidium guajava, Allium sativum, Salvia officinalis and Eucalyptus globulus) and phytocompounds isolated from these species (hesperidin, rutin, diosmin, apiine, aloe-emodin, piperine, capsaicin, curcumin, oleuropein and epicatechin gallate) that could contribute to the management of the disease. Academics and authorities are urged to pay more attention to these therapeutic options that nature offer to us and could contribute to alleviate the collapse of the prevailing health systems in the country.

Plasma rico en plaquetas como terapia autóloga en la medicina regenerativa: Revisión narrativa / Platelet rich plasma as autologous therapy in regenerative medicine: Narrative review

En las últimas décadas, la terapia de plasma rico en plaquetas (PRP) ha despertado mucha atención en el área de la medicina regenerativa, siendo aplicada a diferentes patologías sistémicas y localizadas. El PRP proporciona diversos factores de crecimiento y proteínas que pueden estimular al proceso de regeneración celular, representa un factor importante para su uso clínico generalizado, en diferentes tejidos en donde el suministro de sangre es lento o limitado y apoya la recuperación, cicatrización, activación biológica de células de defensa, estabilización en la regeneración celular y tisular, teniendo uso clínico en casi todas las especialidades médicas. Esta revisión tiene como objetivo presentar las bases teóricas para la potencial aplicación del PRP y sus factores de crecimiento en tratamientos que buscan una terapia regenerativa por bioestimulación de la aplicación autóloga, en patologías para las cuales aún no existe tratamiento específico. Se revisaron artículos de los últimos 10 años en los buscadores y bases de datos Google Scholar, PubMed y Scopus y se seleccionaron aquellos que pueden ayudar a entender la aplicación de PRP en diversos procesos de regeneración, con miras a utilizarse como un tratamiento alternativo y complementario a pacientes con COVID-19. Se encontró abundante literatura experimental y clínica en el uso de PRP autóloga, en diversos procesos de regeneración, inclusive en neumología e infectología, por lo que amerita comprobar su efecto con protocolos establecidos, en patologías respiratorias severas como apoyo biológico autólogo para activar la respuesta biológica innata de tipo celular.

Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) therapy has generated much attention in recent decades in regenerative medicine, being applied to different systemic and localized pathologies. PRP provides various growth factors and proteins that can stimulate the cell regeneration process. It is an important factor for its clinical use in different tissues where blood supply is slow or limited, and supports the recovery, healing, activation of defense cells, cellular stabilization, and tissue regeneration, having clinical use in almost all medical specialties. Articles from the last 10 years in Google Scholar, PubMed and Scopus were reviewed and selected those that can help to understand the application of PRP in various regeneration processes, with a view to use as an alternative and complementary treatment for patients with Covid-19. It was found that there is abundant experimental and clinical literature on the use of autologous PRP in various regeneration processes, including pneumology and infectious diseases. It worth evaluating its effect in severe respiratory diseases as an autologous biological support to activate the innate cellular response.

Biomarcadores traslacionales de modelos in vitro e in vivo de daño renal: Una perspectiva para abordar nefrotoxicidad desde múltiples factores etiológicos / Biomarcadores traslacionales de modelos in vitro e in vivo de daño renal: Una perspectiva para abordar nefrotoxicidad desde múltiples factores etiológicos

La prevalencia de enfermedad renal ha aumentado considerablemente en la última década y está previsto que crezca en los próximos años. Recientemente, diversos modelos se han utilizado para entender los procesos fisiopatológicos de daño renal y para la búsqueda de futuros candidatos farmacológicos. El objetivo de esta revisión es proporcionar una descripción de la evidencia actual de modelos in vitro e in vivo de nefrotoxicidad, nefropatía diabética y deshidratación, y los fundamentos de las principales vías de señalización fisiopatológicas, con el fin de proponer biomarcadores candidatos para futura investigación farmacológica. Actualmente, los roedores constituyen un pilar importante en estudios de daño renal, existiendo diferencias específicas según el estímulo nocivo, lo que sugiere considerar para un modelo relevante aspectos como especie, cepa, género y estructuras renales objetivo. Diversas estructuras renales se han complementado in vitro, principalmente a partir de líneas celulares, como del epitelio tubular, podocitos, células mesangiales glomerulares y conducto colector medular interno. Este enfoque se ha utilizado como complementario en modelos de nefrotoxicidad por exposición a aminoglucósidos (principalmente), deshidratación por cloruro de sodio hiperosmolar, y nefropatía diabética por medio de glucosa alta y productos derivados de glucólisis y glicación. Recientemente, estos modelos han mostrado similitud en diversas rutas de señalización celular, con algunos biomarcadores en común, entre múltiples causas de daño renal como el daño oxidativo, disfunción mitocondrial, procesos inflamatorios, desregulación de sistemas de defensa y sobrevivencia celular, y apoptosis. El enfoque en seleccionar biomarcadores relevantes contribuirá al diseño de estrategias terapéuticas de nefroprotectores sobre múltiples factores etiológicos.

The prevalence of kidney disease has increased considerably in the last decade and is expected to growth in the coming years. Recently, various models have been used to understand the pathophysiological processes of kidney damage and to search for future pharmacological candidates. The aim of this review is to provide a description of the current evidence of in vitro and in vivo models of nephrotoxicity, diabetic nephropathy and dehydration, and the foundations of the main pathophysiological signaling pathways, in order to propose candidate biomarkers for future drug discovery. Currently, rodents are an important pillar in studies of kidney damage, with specific differences depending on the noxious stimulus, which suggests considering aspects such as species, strain, gender and target structures for a relevant model. Several renal structures have been complemented through in vitro approaches, mainly using cell lines, such as the tubular epithelium, podocytes, glomerular mesangial cells and inner medullary collecting duct. These cells have been used as models of nephrotoxicity by exposure to aminoglycosides (mainly), dehydration by exposure to hyperosmolar sodium chloride, and diabetic nephropathy by exposure to high glucose and products derived from glycolysis and glycation. Recently, these models have shown common cell signaling pathways on multiple etiologies of kidney injury, sharing several biomarkers such as oxidative damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammatory processes, dysregulation of defense systems and cell survival, and apoptosis. Approaching kidney injury based on the selection of relevant biomarkers will contribute to the design of therapeutic strategies for nephroprotection on multiple etiological factors.

Contenido de oligoelementos y factores antinutricionales de hojas comestibles nativas de Mesoamérica / Content of trace elements and antinutritional factors in edible leaves native to Mesoamerica

Los oligoelementos son importantes constituyentes nutricionales de las hierbas comestibles. Se colectaron 11 especies, nueve nativas (Amaranthus hybridus, Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, Crotalaria longirostrata, Dysphania ambrosioides, Lycianthes synanthera, Sechium edule, Solanum americanum, S. nigrescens, S. wendlandii) y dos introducidas (Moringa oleifera, Spinacea oleracea) en dos regiones de Guatemala. Se prepararon muestras de la hierba seca, cocida y de caldo de hierba fresca. Se cuantificaron por espectrofotometría de absorción atómica los macro (N, P, K) y oligoelementos (Ca, Mg, Na, Cu, Zn, Mn), taninos por espectrofotometría y oxalatos por permanganimetría. El contenido de oligoelementos es diverso, para Zn, la hierba control S. oleracea contienen buena cantidad (90-140 ppm); de las nativas D. ambrosioides (130-160 ppm) y A. hybridus (70-80 ppm) tienen la mayor cantidad. Respecto a Fe las hierbas control tienen buena composición (S. oleracea, 220-280 ppm y M. oleifera, 105-135 ppm); de las nativas A. hybridus (90-240 ppm), C. aconitifolius (75-185 ppm) y L. synanthera (75-140 ppm) tienen buenas concentraciones. Se encontraron niveles elevados de oxalatos en S. oleracea (67.30 (5.51) mg/g), L. synanthera (56.30 (9.67) mg/g) y S. nigrescens (33.6 (5.48) mg/g); en las demás hierbas se encontraron niveles menores. Los niveles de taninos fueron bajos (0.1-0.8 mg/g) para todas las especies. Se demuestra que cuatro especies nativas tienen un buen contenido de oligoelementos y presentan valores menores de antinutricionales que los controles.

Trace elements are important nutritional constituents from edible herbs. Eleven species were collected in two regions of Guatemala, nine native (Amaranthus hybridus, Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, Crotalaria longirostrata, Dysphania ambrosioides, Lycianthes synanthera, Sechium edule, Solanum americanum, S. nigrescens, S. wendlandii) and two introduced (Moringa oleifera, Spinacea oleracea). Dry, cooked and broth samples were prepared. By atomic absorption spectrometry, macro (N, P, K) and trace elements (Ca, Mg, Na, Cu, Zn, Mn) were quantified, tannins by spectrophotometry, and oxalates by permanganometry. Trace elements content is diverse, for Zn, control herb S. oleracea contained high quantity (90-140 ppm); from the natives D. ambrosioides (130-160 ppm) and A. hybridus (70-80 ppm) contained high amounts. For Fe, control herbs had high composition (S. oleracea, 220-280 ppm, M. oleifera, 105-135 ppm); from the natives A. hybridus (90-240 ppm), C. aconitifolius (75-185 ppm) and L. synanthera (75-140 ppm) had the highest amounts. High levels of oxalates were demonstrated in S. oleracea (67.30 (5.48) mg/g), L. synanthera (56.30 (9.67) mg/g), and S. nigrescens (33.6 (5.48) mg/g); from the others levels.

Bioactividad de extractos de seis especies vegetales nodrizas de bosques de pinabete (Abies guatemalensis Rehder) de Ixchiguán, San Marcos, Guatemala / Bioactivity of extracts from six nurse plants species from fir (Abies guatemalensis Rehder) forests from Ixchiguan, San Marcos, Guatemala

Plantas nodrizas son aquellas especies vegetales útiles para la sobrevivencia y convivencia de otras especies. Abies guatemalensis Rehder (pinabete), es una especie endémica en peligro de extinción y para asegurar su sobrevivencia es necesario estudiar sus plantas nodrizas. Se colectaron seis especies de plantas nodrizas provenientes de bosque Los Cuervos, Ixchiguán, San Marcos, se secaron a la sombra en un horno, hasta obtener un porcentaje de humedad < 10%. Se obtuvieron extractos etanólicos por percolación y concentración empleando rotavapor; los aceites senciales fueron extraídos por hidrodestilación con Neoclevenger. Para los análisis de actividad biológica se realizaron ensayos contra bacterias, hongos, levaduras, larvas de insectos, nauplios de Artemia salina y actividad antioxidante. Los aceites esenciales presentaron un porcentaje de rendimiento < 0.3%. Cinco de los seis extractos etanólicos demostraron baja actividad antimicrobiana y larvicida (CIM: 1 mg/mL). Respecto a la actividad antioxidante por DPPH, Acaena elongata (CI50 de 0.21 [0.019, 0.23] mg/mL) y Rubus trilobus (CI50 0.32 [0.31, 0.33] mg/mL) presentaron los mejores resultados y Buddleja megalocephala (CI50 0.75 [0.72, 0.77] mg/mL) presentó actividad moderada. Estos hallazgos estimulan a continuar la investigación de plantas nodrizas para identificar las moléculas responsables de la actividad antioxidante y definir su posible aplicación como antioxidantes para la prevención o tratamiento de patologías humanas o para la preservación de alimentos o uso cosmético, permitiendo que las comunidades conserven y aprovechen de manera sostenible dichas especies.

Nurse plants are species useful for the survival and coexistence of other plants. Abies guatemalensis Rehder (fir) is an endemic species in danger of extinction and in order to ensure its survival, it is necessary to study their nurse plants. Six species of nurse plants were collected from Los Cuervos forest, Ixchiguán, San Marcos, they were dried in the shade and in an oven until a moisture content < 10% was obtained. Ethanol extracts were obtained by percolation followed by concentration in rotavapor; essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation with Neoclevenger. Assays for biological activity were established against bacteria, fungi, yeasts, insect larvae, nauplii of Artemia salina and antioxidant activity. The essential oils yields were < 0.3%. Extracts have little antimicrobial and larvicidal activity with a MIC 1 mg/mL of the ethanol extracts. The free radical trapping activity assay evaluated by DPPH, yielded good results: Acaena elongata (IC50 of 0.21 [0.019, 0.23] mg/mL) and Rubus trilobus (IC50 0.32 [0.31, 0.33] mg/mL) and moderate activity in Buddleja megalocephala (IC50 0.75 [0.72, 0.77] mg/mL). These findings stimulate research on nurse plants to identify the molecules responsible for the antioxidant activity and to define its possible application for the prevention or treatment of human pathologies or for the preservation of food or cosmetic use, allowing the communities to preserve and take advantage on a sustainable way.

Diez pasos básicos para escribir y publicar un artículo científico / Ten basic steps to write and publish a scientific article

La elaboración de un manuscrito y su publicación en revistas indexadas, es la culminación de un proyecto de investigación, es la forma en que los investigadores comparten el nuevo conocimiento con sus pares y constituye el principal mecanismo de visibilidad personal e institucional, a nivel nacional e internacional. El presente ensayo tuvo como objetivo elaborar una guía básica de cómo preparar un manuscrito y brindar elementos prácticos para lograr su publicación. Se describen los 10 pasos básicos, que señalan el orden en que deben abordarse las secciones de un artículo científico, así como el contenido de las mismas. Finalmente se presenta una tabla que mediante preguntas e indicaciones, resume el contenido de cada una de las secciones del artículo. Se espera que con esta guía, los investigadores encuentren una herramienta útil que les ayude a escribir y publicar artículos científicos.

Preparing and publishing a scientific manuscript in peer reviewed journals, is the final phase of a research project, it represents the way of sharing new knowledge with other scientists, and is the principal mechanism for personal and institutional visibility at national and international level. The objective of this essay was to prepare a basic guide on how to write a manuscript and to provide practical elements to achieve its publication. Ten basic steps are described, which point out the order to approach the sections of a scientific paper, as well as the content of each section. Finally the paper presents a table which by using questions and indications provides tips for writing each section of a scientific paper. It is expected that this guide will help young scientists to write and publish scientific papers.

Evaluación del contenido de selenio en hojas de hierbas nativas de uso tradicional en la alimentación del guatemalteco / Evaluation of selenium content in leaves of native herbs of traditional food use in Guatemala

El selenio (Se) es un elemento esencial para el ser humano que se encuentra en pequeñas cantidades en los suelos, pero se acumula en ciertas plantas, proporcionando beneficios como antioxidante, antiinflamatorio y quemopreventivo por la presencia de unas 25 selenoproteínas que participan en diversas acciones de bienestar, lactancia, desarrollo, reproducción y salud de la progenie. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el contenido de Se en hojas de vegetales utilizados tradicionalmente en la alimentación guatemalteca. Se colectaron hojas de materiales cultivados para los mercados locales de nueve hierbas nativas (Amaranthus hybridus, Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, Crotalaria longirostrata, Dysphania ambrosioides, Lycianthes synanthera, Sechium edule, Solanum americanum, Solanum nigrescens y Solanum wendlandii) y dos introducidas de reconocido uso alimenticio (Moringa oleifera y Spinacia oleracea), se secaron en un horno de convección forzada para lograr una humedad < 10% y se digirieron 0.25 ± 0.02 g de hojas en una mezcla de ácido nítrico y ácido perclórico que se calentó hasta la digestión total de la materia. El Se fue determinado por el método de reflexión total de rayos X, utilizando un estándar interno de itrio (Y) el que se midió utilizando reflectores de cuarzo en un espectrómetro de reflexión total de rayos X. De todas las especies evaluadas, únicamente A. hybridus demostró cantidades cuantificables de Se. Se determinó que 100 g de materia vegetal seca de A. hybridus proporciona 0.355 mg de Se, por lo que su consumo semanal puede contribuir con el requerimiento de este micronutriente para un adulto.

Selenium (Se) is an essential element for the human being; it is in small amounts in the soil but it accumulates in certain plants, providing benefits as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and chemopreventive, due to the presence of about 25 selenoproteins that participate in different welfare and development actions, lactation, reproduction and health of the progeny. This study aimed to assess Se content in leaves of nine native plants traditionally used in Guatemalan food (Amaranthus hybridus, Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, Crotalaria longirostrata, Dysphania ambrosioides, Lycianthes synanthera, Sechium edule, Solanum americanum, Solanum nigrescens and Solanum wendlandii) and two internationally uses herbs (Moringa oleifera, Spinacia oleracea). Se was determined by total reflection X-ray method. Plants were dried in a forced convection oven to constant weight, then were digested by weighing 0.25 ± 0.02 g of dry plant material with a mixture of nitric and perchloric acid, and warmed to achieve complete digestion. Using a yttrium (Y) internal standard were measured using quartz reflectors Spectrometer Total reflection X-ray. Of all native plant species tested, only A. hybridus there were measurable amounts of Se. It was determined that 100 g of dry plant material of A. hybridus provides 0.355 mg of Se, so its weekly consumption by an adult might contribute to satisfied the requirement of this microelement.

Inhibición de los efectos coagulante, fosfolipasa A2 y proteolítico del veneno de Bothrops asper por plantas usadas tradicionalmente en Centroamérica / Inhibition of the coagulant, phospholipase A2 and proteolytic effects of Bothrops asper venom by plants traditionally used in Central America

Existen pocos estudios científicos que demuestren el valor terapéutico de las plantas usadas en la medicina tradicional centroamericana para tratar el envenenamiento ofídico. En este estudio se evaluó la capacidad de los extractos etanólicos de nueve plantas de uso etnomédico en Centroamérica (Acacia hindsii, Aristolochia maxima, Bursera simaruba, Cissampelos pareira, Eryngium foetidum, Hamelia patens, Pimenta dioica, Piper peltatum y Sansevieria hyacinthoides) para inhibir el efecto coagulante del veneno de Bothrops asper. Tres de ellas (B. simaruba, E. foetidum y P. dioica) también fueron evaluadas en cuanto a su capacidad inhibitoria de los efectos fosfolipasa A2 (PLA2) y proteolítico del veneno. Las plantas fueron colectadas en Guatemala, secadas, extraídas con etanol y los efectos inhibitorios evaluados in vitro después de preincubar concentraciones variables de extracto con concentraciones fijas de veneno. Los resultados demostraron que ninguno de los extractos logró inhibir los efectos coagulante y PLA2, pero los extractos clorofilados de P. dioica y E. foetidum inhibieron efectivamente la actividad proteolítica del veneno. El tamizaje fitoquímico, mediante ensayos macro y semimicrométricos de cromatografía en capa fina, demostró la presencia de metabolitos secundarios reportados con actividad antiproteolítica (flavonoides, antocianinas, catequinas y taninos) en la composición química de los extractos de E. foetidum y P. dioica. Su efecto sobre el veneno se evaluó mediante electroforesis SDS-PAGE, demostrándose que no está mediado por degradación proteolítica de los componentes del veneno. El aislamiento y caracterización específica de sus metabolitos secundarios en futuros estudios, permitirá determinar el mecanismo de acción inhibitoria ejercido por estos extractos.

Medicinal plants have been traditionally used in Central America to treat snakebite envenomations, however, very few scientific studies aimed to demonstrate their efficacy and safety have been performed. In this study, ethanolic extracts of nine plants used in the region by traditional healers in snakebite cases (Acacia hindsii, Aristolochia maxima, Bursera simaruba, Cissampelos pareira, Eryngium foetidum, Hamelia patens, Pimenta dioica, Piper peltatum and Sansevieria hyacinthoides) were evaluated for their ability to inhibit the coagulant effect induced by the venom of the snake Bothrops asper. Three of these extracts (B. simaruba, E. foetidum and P. dioica) were also evaluated for their inhibitory effect on the phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and proteolytic activities of the venom. Plants were collected in Guatemala, dried, extracted with ethanol, and their inhibitory effects were evaluated in vitro after pre-incubation of several amounts of each extract with a challenge concentration of venom. Results showed that none of the extracts inhibited the coagulant and PLA2 effects; however, chlorophyllated extracts of E. foetidum and P. dioica effectively inhibited the proteolytic activity of the venom. Phytochemical analysis of these extracts, conducted by macrometric assays and semimicroanalysis by thin layer chromatography, identified secondary metabolites (flavones, anthocyanins, catequines and tannins) whose anti-proteolytic activities have been widely reported. SDS-PAGE analysis demonstrated that the mechanism of inhibition is not related to proteolytic degradation of the venom proteins by the plant extracts. Further studies are needed to isolate and identify the active venom inhibitory compounds of these plants, aimed to understand their mechanism of action.

Ethnomedical research and review of Q'eqchi Maya women's reproductive health in the Lake Izabal region of Guatemala: Past, present and future prospects.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: In Central America, most Maya women use ethnomedicines for all aspects of their reproductive cycle including menstruation, pregnancy and menopause. However, very few of these plants have been documented, collected and tested in appropriate pharmacological assays to determine possible safety and efficacy. The aim of this work was to provide an overview of information on the ethnomedical uses, ethnopharmacology, chemistry and pharmacological research for medicinal plants used for women's reproductive health in Guatemala, with a special emphasis on the Q'eqchi Maya of the Lake Izabal region, to demonstrate therapeutic potential and support future research in the field. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Reviews of the ethnobotanical, ethnomedical and ethnopharmacological literature were performed for 30 plants collected in the Lake Izabal region of Guatemala and used by the Q'eqchi Maya for treatment of reproductive health issues were performed up to and including July 2015 using multiple databases, library searches for abstracts, books, dissertations, and websites. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Review of the published research confirms that many of the plants used by Q'eqchi Maya women for the management of reproductive health issues have pharmacological activities, including analgesic, anti-inflammatory, estrogenic, progestagenic and/or serotonergic effects, that support the use of these plants and provide plausible mechanisms of action for their traditional uses. Furthermore, a new serotonin agonist, 9, 10-methylenedioxy-5, 6-Z-fadyenolide was isolated, thereby demonstrating an untapped potential for drug discovery. However, to date much of the pharmacological assays have been in vitro only, and few in vivo studies have been performed. Considering the large percentage of the Maya population in Guatemala that use traditional medicines, there remains a significant lack of pharmacological and toxicological data for these plants. Future research should focus on the safety and efficacy of medicinal plants using in vivo preclinical studies and clinical trials, as well as chemical analysis. Since medicinal plants from the Piperaceae are most commonly used as traditional medicines by the Q'eqchi Maya women, and new bioactive compounds have been identified from Piper species, investigations of commonly used plants from this family would be an appropriate place to start. Data generated from such studies would contribute to Guatemala's national effort to promote a complementary relationship between traditional Maya medicine and public health services.

Actividad antioxidante de extractos de diez basidiomicetos comestibles en Guatemala / Antioxidant activity of extracts of ten edible basidiomycetes in Guatemala

Los antioxidantes son esenciales en el cuerpo humano para prevenir el daño oxidativo. Estas sustancias pueden obtenerse de diferentes fuentes como frutas, plantas y hongos. En Guatemala, diversas especies de hongos comestibles son comercializadas y consumidas, sin embargo su actividad antioxidante no ha sido documentada en el país. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar la actividad antioxidante de extractos acuosos y etanólicos obtenidos de diez especies de basidiomicetos comestibles (Agaricus aff. bisporus, Agaricus brunnescens, Armilla-riella polymyces, Amanita garabitoana, Boletus edulis, Cantharellus lateritius, Laccaria amethystina, Lactarius deliciosus, Neolentinus ponderosus y Pleurotus ostreatus). Se utilizó un método cualitativo por cromatografía en capa fina (CCF) y tres ensayos macrométricos in vitro de cuantificación de fenoles totales, reducción del radical 1,1-difenil-2-pricrilhidrazilo (DPPH) y decoloración del radical catiónico del reactivo ácido 2,2’-azinobis-(acido-3-etilbenzotiazolina-6-sulfónico)(ABTS). Los extractos acuosos mostraron mayor actividad antioxidante que los extractos etanólicos en todas las técnicas cuantitativas realizadas. La especie que mostró mayor actividad antioxidante en ambos extractos fue B. edulis, cuyos resultados en el extracto acuoso fueron: fenoles totales 93.46 ± 18.17 mg/g, DPPH CI 50 0.93 mg/mL (IC95% 0.65-1.28) y en ABTS CI50 0.96 mg/mL (IC 95% 0.63-1.35); los resultados en el extracto etanólico fueron: Fenoles totales 42.70 ± 3.48 mg/g, DPPH CI50 2.75 mg/mL (IC 95% 2.46-3.07) y 4.13 mg/mL (IC 95% 2.67-5.88). Se evidencia de esta forma que las especies de basidiomicetos estudiadas presentan actividad antioxidante por lo cual pueden ser una fuente potencial de antioxidantes naturales.

Antioxidants are essential in the body to prevent oxidative damage. These antioxidant substances are obtained from different sources such as fruits, plants and mushrooms. In Guatemala, diverse species of mushrooms are commercialized and consumed, however their antioxidant activity has not been documented in Guatemala. The goal of this study aimed to determine the antioxidant activity of aqueous and ethanolic extracts obtained from edible basidiomycete’s species: Agaricus aff. bisporus, A. brunnescens, Armillariella polymyces, Amanita garabitoana, Boletus edulis, Cantharellus lateritius, Laccaria amethystina, Lactarius deliciosus, Neolentinus ponderosus and Pleurotus ostreatus. Thin layer chromatography (TLC) was used as a qualitative method to determine the presence of antioxidant activity, subsequently, three in vitro macrometric assays were used: the quantification of total phenolics, reduction of 1,1-diphenyl-2-pricrilhidrazil (DPPH) radical, and discoloration of the acid reagent 2.2 ‘-azinobis-(acid-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical cation. Aqueous extracts exhibited higher antioxidant activity than ethanolic in all the quantitative techniques used. The specie that showed greater antioxidant activity in both extracts was B. edulis, whose results of aqueous extract were as follows: Total phenolics 93.46 ± 18.17 mg/g , DPPH IC50 0.93 mg/mL (CI95% 0.65-1.28) and ABTS IC50 0.96 mg/mL (CI95% 0.63-1.35); results of ethanolic extract were: Total phenolics 42.70 ± 3.48 mg/g, DPPH IC50 2.75 mg/mL (CI95% 2.46-3.07) and ABTS IC50 4.13 mg/mL (CI95% 2.67-5.88). Based in the result of the study all the basidiomycete’s species that were evaluated have antioxidant activity, therefore, are potential sources of natural antioxidants.